This backgrounder offers an introduction to the main theories of international relations — not as an academic exercise, but as a practical toolkit for anyone trying to understand why states do what they do.

Realism, liberalism, constructivism, critical theories: each framework asks different questions about the same event. Realism focuses on power and its distribution. Liberalism looks at institutions and interdependencies that make cooperation possible. Constructivism explores how identities and narratives shape state interests before any decision is made. Critical theories step back further and ask who designed the international system — and in whose interest.

Drawing on concrete cases — the invasion of Ukraine, South Africa’s nuclear disarmament, the democratic peace — the article argues that no single framework tells the full story. Analytical clarity lies precisely in knowing which one to reach for, in which situation, and what each one leaves in the dark.

Click to read my latest piece for the Geopolitical Monitor.